UNIT 1: The Ancient Near East and Far East
1. Prehistoric Era
Prehistoric - Historic - Neanderthal - Shanidar Cave - Lascaux - Paleolithic Era - Neolithic Era - Agriculture - Civilization - Homo habilis - Homo erectus - Homo sapiens neanderthalensis - Homo sapiens sapiens - Cro-Magnon - Sumer - Ur - Uruk - Gilgamesh - Cuneiform - Rock of Behistun - Ziggurats - Eddubas - Akkad - Sargon I - Babylon - Amorites - The Hanging Gardens of Babylon - Nebuchadrezzar - The Code of Hammurabi - Zoroaster - Zarathustra - Zend Avesta - Ahura Mazda - Ahriman - Darius - Satraps - Cyrus the Great - Medes - Persepolis and Susa - Royal Road - Hattusas - Hittites
2. Egypt: The Gift of the Nile
Nile River - Rosetta Stone - hieroglyphics - Archaic period - First intermediate period - Second intermediate period - Narmer / Menes - Old Kingdom - Pharaoh - Osiris, Isis, and Horus - The Book of the Dead - The Middle Kingdom - Thebes - Hyksos - New Kingdom - Thutmose (Thutmosis) I, II, III - Hatshepsut - Amenhotep IV / Akhenaten - Amarna Revolution - Tel el-Amarna / Akhenaten - Nefertiti - Tutankamun - Ramses II - Hittites - The People of the Sea - Assyrians - Persians - Alexander the Great
3. The Hebrews
Abraham - Isaac - Israel - the covenant with Abraham - Palestine - Judah - Philistine - Moses - Hosea - Amos - Isaiah - Elijah - Elisha - Mosaic covenant - Soloman - David - Saul - Temple of Solomon - Wailing or Western wall - Herodian Temple Mount - Kingdom of Israel - Kingdom of Judah - Assyrians - Babylonians - Persians - Babylonian Captivity - Torah - Talmud - Pentateuch - Monotheism - Elohistic - Yahwistic - Deuteronomistic - Ezra - Nehemiah - Joshua - Hebrew
4. Indian Civilization Through the Mauryan Empire
Indus River Valley - Harappa - Mohenjo Daro - Aryans - Rig Veda - Sanskrit - Bhagavad Gita - Upanishads - Mahabarata - Brahman - Brahma - Vishnu - Shiva - Purusha - castes - Brahmins - kshatriya - vaisya - sudra - Pariahs - Atman - Samsara - Dharma - Karma - Moksha - Buddha - Siddhartha Gautama - Nirvana - Four Noble Truths - Four Great Sights - Night of the Great Reunciation - Queen Maya - Queen Maha-Prajapati - wheel of the law - Middle Path - eightfold path of right conduct - Stupa - Rock pillar edicts - Ashoka - Chandragupta Maurya - Theravada Buddhism - Mahayana Buddhism - Tibetan Buddhism - Greater Vehicle - Lesser Vehicle - Bodhisattvas - Zen Buddhism
5. China Through the Han Dynasty
Yellow River - Five Heavenly emperors - Shang Dynasty - Anyang - ancestor worship - Zhou (Chou) - eastern Zhou (Chou) - Loyang - Mandate of Heaven - Wei River Valley - Warring States - Daoism - Lao Tzu - Wu-wei - Confucius - Rules of Propriety - filial piety - Qin Shi Huangdi (Ch'in Shi Huang-ti) - Qin (Ch'in) Empire - Great Wall - Han Fei - legalism - Han Dynasty - Han wu di (Wu-ti) - Ch'and An period - later Han - Silk Road - Xiong-Nu (Hsiung-Nu) - Ban Chao - Sima Qin (Ssuma Ch'ien)
UNIT 1 Focus Readings
1. Zoroastrianism
The Persians also contributed a religion known as Zoroastrianism. The prophet Zarathustra (628-551 BCE), referred to more commonly by the English name Zoroaster, founded Zoroastrianism. The main text we have for this tradition dates from the third century CE and is known as the Zend Avesta. According to this much later text, in his youth, Zoroaster had visions and conversations with divine beings. He became a wandering preacher who urged the Persians to abandon sacrifice to all minor deities, and to be more humane towards animals in sacrifice. He taught a dualist religion, in which good battled evil. Good was symbolized by light while evil was symbolized by darkness. Fire was thought of as divine, since it was a form of light. The god of good was Ahura Mazda, and immortal holy ones or forces of good, such as obedience, truth, law, and immortality, assisted him. His twin, Ahriman, was banished from heaven to hell, where he reigned as the principle of evil. Zoroaster urged the Persians to "turn from the lie (druj) to the Truth (asha)."
Zoroaster taught that people are creations of the good god, and have the free will to turn either towards good or evil. In the end, humans will be judged according to the Book of Life, in which all deeds are recorded. There was a priesthood known as the Magi, who absolved sins, and meted out atonement and repentance. Some historians argue that the Zoroastrian concept of good vs. evil influenced Christianity, as did its concept of life after death, the importance of good works, and its cult of Magi, who are mentioned in the Christian gospels as among the first visitors to the infant Jesus.
An important tradition within Zoroatrianism was the cult of Mithra. According to legend, mithra was born on December 25, the date of the winter solstice when the sun returns from south of the equator and is reborn. Mithra was sent by Aura Mazda to redeem the earth. After the first century of the Common Era, Mithraism was a widespread cult in ancient Rome, where Mithra was called by the Greek version of the name, Mithras. In later Roman versions of this myth, Mithras slaughtered a holy bull while on earth. Initiates bathed in the blood of the bull and also ate a sacred meal from its shoulder. the similarity of Christianity to mithraism was one of the reasons Christianity spread rather slowly through the Roman Empire. Scholars debate the extent to which Roman Mithraism was taken from Persia, as there are several significant differences between the Persian myths and the Roman myths, which often identify Mithras with the sun. Perian versions have no tauroctony, the bull-slaying image so familiar to Romans.
Zoroastrianism became the state religion of the Perisian Empire following the conversion of the Persian kings. Darius, for example, was a convert to Zoroastrianism. The Persian Empire collapsed after Muslim invasions in the seventh century CE.
Zoroaster taught that people are creations of the good god, and have the free will to turn either towards good or evil. In the end, humans will be judged according to the Book of Life, in which all deeds are recorded. There was a priesthood known as the Magi, who absolved sins, and meted out atonement and repentance. Some historians argue that the Zoroastrian concept of good vs. evil influenced Christianity, as did its concept of life after death, the importance of good works, and its cult of Magi, who are mentioned in the Christian gospels as among the first visitors to the infant Jesus.
An important tradition within Zoroatrianism was the cult of Mithra. According to legend, mithra was born on December 25, the date of the winter solstice when the sun returns from south of the equator and is reborn. Mithra was sent by Aura Mazda to redeem the earth. After the first century of the Common Era, Mithraism was a widespread cult in ancient Rome, where Mithra was called by the Greek version of the name, Mithras. In later Roman versions of this myth, Mithras slaughtered a holy bull while on earth. Initiates bathed in the blood of the bull and also ate a sacred meal from its shoulder. the similarity of Christianity to mithraism was one of the reasons Christianity spread rather slowly through the Roman Empire. Scholars debate the extent to which Roman Mithraism was taken from Persia, as there are several significant differences between the Persian myths and the Roman myths, which often identify Mithras with the sun. Perian versions have no tauroctony, the bull-slaying image so familiar to Romans.
Zoroastrianism became the state religion of the Perisian Empire following the conversion of the Persian kings. Darius, for example, was a convert to Zoroastrianism. The Persian Empire collapsed after Muslim invasions in the seventh century CE.
2. Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten)
One of the more interesting pharaohs of the new kingdom was Amenhotep IV, who changed his name to Akhenaten in honor of the god he served, Aten. Amenhotep was physically deformed and kept from public view in his youth. He had a very elongated neck, face, limbs, toes and fingers and in many statues has rounded hips and other feminine features. Various experts have speculated what malady produced the deformities, and suggestions have ranged from hydorcephaly, to Marfan's syndrome, to Froelich's syndrome, to hermaphrodism, among others. Rather than focusing on the possible physical anomalies of Akhenaten, some scholars insist his portrayals deliberately took on both male and female characteristics to represent the all-encompassing nature of Aten and also perhaps a radical statement about gender equality before Aten. At any rate his physical problems may account for his emphasis on religious reform rather than on the protection of the frontiers and the powerful priests of Amun-Re.
His father, Amenhotep III, had strengthened the cult of the sun, Aten, during his reign as a way to counter the growing power of the priesthood of Amun. He very closely identified himself with Aten, something his son, Amenhotep IV would also do. Amenhotep IV began to construct special temples to Aten at the great Temple of Karnak, a site devoted to Amun, almost immediately upon becoming pharaoh. Nerfertiti, whose name means "the beautiful one has come" (or alternatively, "the perfect one has come"), is prominently featured in these complexes. In fact, her name appears more than that of her husband. After experiencing a diret revelation from Aten, he suddenly announced his intention to move the capitol to a place where the sun rose between two mountains, the very hieroglyph for the sun disk. The name of this place, Akhenaten (now known as Tel el-Amarna), means "the horizon of Aten." He changed his name to Akhenaten, or "he who is beneficial to Aten" and discouraged worship of Amun. his wife name was changed to Nefer-Nefru-aten, or "Beautiful is the Beauty of Aten." The art of Akhenaten was more realistic, and the distorted image of Akhenaten became synonymous with beauty, and artisans distorted even the lovely face of Nefertiti to more closely match that of her husband.
Akhenaten ignored the frontiers and the needs of his people in unprotected places. Even Nefertiti appears to have abandoned him in year 14 of his reign. here again, there is scholarly controversty. She is not mentioned after year 14, and some scholars assume she died. On the other hand, several scholars point to the existence of inscriptions associated with her children and in other places that would indicate she continued to survive. Some scholars suggest that Akhenaten's successor, Smenkaure, who had a reign name very similar to that of Nefertiti, is really Nefertiti posing as a man.
His father, Amenhotep III, had strengthened the cult of the sun, Aten, during his reign as a way to counter the growing power of the priesthood of Amun. He very closely identified himself with Aten, something his son, Amenhotep IV would also do. Amenhotep IV began to construct special temples to Aten at the great Temple of Karnak, a site devoted to Amun, almost immediately upon becoming pharaoh. Nerfertiti, whose name means "the beautiful one has come" (or alternatively, "the perfect one has come"), is prominently featured in these complexes. In fact, her name appears more than that of her husband. After experiencing a diret revelation from Aten, he suddenly announced his intention to move the capitol to a place where the sun rose between two mountains, the very hieroglyph for the sun disk. The name of this place, Akhenaten (now known as Tel el-Amarna), means "the horizon of Aten." He changed his name to Akhenaten, or "he who is beneficial to Aten" and discouraged worship of Amun. his wife name was changed to Nefer-Nefru-aten, or "Beautiful is the Beauty of Aten." The art of Akhenaten was more realistic, and the distorted image of Akhenaten became synonymous with beauty, and artisans distorted even the lovely face of Nefertiti to more closely match that of her husband.
Akhenaten ignored the frontiers and the needs of his people in unprotected places. Even Nefertiti appears to have abandoned him in year 14 of his reign. here again, there is scholarly controversty. She is not mentioned after year 14, and some scholars assume she died. On the other hand, several scholars point to the existence of inscriptions associated with her children and in other places that would indicate she continued to survive. Some scholars suggest that Akhenaten's successor, Smenkaure, who had a reign name very similar to that of Nefertiti, is really Nefertiti posing as a man.
3. The Babylonian Captivity
(note: not to be confused with the Babylonian Captivity during the Avignonese papacy which adopts the same name)
The Babylonians conquered Judah in 586 BCE, and brought many inhabitants to Babylon. This period is known as the Babylonian Captivity, and is chronicled in the second book of Kings, chapters 24-25, and the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, which deal mainly with the later return of the Jews. During this fifty-year period, Jews attempted to preserve their identity. Rabbis, or teachers, taught Hebrew history and religion in the synagogues. This period is also the likely date for the beginnings of the Talmud, or rabbinical commentary on the Torah. The Talmud contains explications of such customs as the bar mitzvah, wedding rituals, and Kosher laws for the preparation of food.
The Persians liberated the Jews when they conquered Babylon and allowed them to return to Jerusalem. There was a great deal of resentment of those who had remained in Judah; when the Jews returned after the Babylonian Captivity, they refused to allow those who had remained to help rebuild the kingdom. The tensions between these two factions is evident in the Christian scriptures in the references to the Jews and the Samaritans.
The Persians liberated the Jews when they conquered Babylon and allowed them to return to Jerusalem. There was a great deal of resentment of those who had remained in Judah; when the Jews returned after the Babylonian Captivity, they refused to allow those who had remained to help rebuild the kingdom. The tensions between these two factions is evident in the Christian scriptures in the references to the Jews and the Samaritans.
4. The Spread of Buddhism
It is via the Silk Road that Buddhism spread to other areas of Asia. Trade often fostered close working relationships and even alliances, and these relationships were the foundation that made the spread of Buddhism possible. Each area often adapted Buddhism to its own cultural framework. Buddhist temples are formed throughout the world, but the greatest concentration of Buddhists is in Southeast Asia, Laos, Thailand, Tibet, China and Japan. The enemies of the Chinese, the Xiong Nu, converted to Buddhism as early as the second century BCE. The Han court recorded the arrival of a Buddhist missionary in the first century CE. The Chinese initially rejected the wandering monks. the Chinese were also puzzled by the notion of reincarnation, but despite the fact that Buddhist teaching conflicted with Chinese values, espeically that of filial piety, Buddhism eventually took root. The Chinese translated the Buddhist sutras, and in doing, fused many of the Buddha's teachings with those of Confuciaus and other important Chinese thinkers. For example, the translated dharma as Dao (The Way), nirvana as wu wei (inaction), and emphasized those few stories in the existing Buddhist canon that spoke to the devotion to parents. Chinese Buddhists eventually created some of the world's greatest Buddhist art, as seen especially in the caves of Magao along the frontiers of china. Here, thousands of caves are adorned with paintings and enormous statues of the Buddha.
In the fourth centruy CE, Chinese Buddhist monks, such as Fa Hsien, began to make pilgrimages to India. Fa Shien learned Sanskrit and made a translation of Tripitaka, the Buddhist canon. The most famous Chinese pilgrim was Xuan Zang, who made a sixteen year pilgrimage to India in the seventh century CE in search of Buddhist sutras. These Chinese pilgrim monks largely traveled across the legendary Silk Road. Just as Muslims persecuted Buddihism in the land of its birth, in 845 CE the Chinese Emperor Wu-tsung ordered the destruction of 4600 Buddhist temples.
Buddhism also spread to japan, where the Japanese created a unique version of Buddha's teachings, Zen Buddhism. Zen Buddhists are known for the use of rock gardens to meditate. The rocks are often arranged in groups of three to symbolize heaven, earth, and humanity. The formations are also asymmetrical, to symbolize the uneven and imperfect nature of life.
In the fourth centruy CE, Chinese Buddhist monks, such as Fa Hsien, began to make pilgrimages to India. Fa Shien learned Sanskrit and made a translation of Tripitaka, the Buddhist canon. The most famous Chinese pilgrim was Xuan Zang, who made a sixteen year pilgrimage to India in the seventh century CE in search of Buddhist sutras. These Chinese pilgrim monks largely traveled across the legendary Silk Road. Just as Muslims persecuted Buddihism in the land of its birth, in 845 CE the Chinese Emperor Wu-tsung ordered the destruction of 4600 Buddhist temples.
Buddhism also spread to japan, where the Japanese created a unique version of Buddha's teachings, Zen Buddhism. Zen Buddhists are known for the use of rock gardens to meditate. The rocks are often arranged in groups of three to symbolize heaven, earth, and humanity. The formations are also asymmetrical, to symbolize the uneven and imperfect nature of life.
5. Lao Zi (Lao Tzu or Lao Tze) and Daoism
Lao Zi's historical existence, unlike that of Confucius, cannot be decisively verified or rejected. The great Han historian Ssu ma Ch'ien wrote the first biography of Lao Zi in the second to the first century BCE. According to legend, Lao Zi, known as the wise old dragon, was born in 604 BCEW and lived until 517 BCE. He was conceived by a shooting star, and carried in his mother's womb for 62 years. When he was born, he had a long mane of white hair. This is an interesting legend, as the dragon is the symbol of the heavens and imperial power, while the Chinese calendar is a sixty-two year calendar. In other words, Lao Zi's wisdom was identified with the wisdom of the heavens themselves. Lao Zi became a shih scholar during the last years of the Zhou (Chou) dynasty and, like Confucius, he became very disenchanted with the collapse of order. According to legends, as he was attempting to leave China, he was detained at the last pass across the frontiers. A guard forced him to record the fruits of his wisdom before being allowed to exit. The result became known as the Dao De Jing (Tao Te Ching), or The Classic of the Way and of Virtue.
The language of the Dao De Jing, however, is clearly from the Han era; we cannot know how much of this text actually represents the teachings of Lao Zi, much less can we know whether Lao Zi ever actually existed.
According to legend, Confucius once met the "old dragon" Lao Zi, who was the older scholar. Lao Zi was unimpressed with Confucius, and believed him vain and arrogant for attempting to define the Dao (Tao) through his "Rules of Propriety." Lao Zi rejected the Confucian notion that the Rules of Propriety might capture the path to virtue. This was due to his belief that the Dao was not to be equated with filial piety or with any other system of morality or learning as the Dao itself was limitless and inexpressible. It cannot be named or otherwise described, as any attempt to do so would necessarily limt the Dao. The Dao encompasses everything.
Therefore, the Daoist ideal of the sage was quite different from that of Confucius, who advocated learning and study in order to cultivate virtue. Lao Zi argued that, "When we renounce learning we have no troubles. If we could renounce our sageness and discard our wisdom, it would be better for the people a hundredfold. If we could renounce our benevolence and discard our righteousness, the people would again become filial and kindly. If we could renounce our artful contrivances and discard our scheming for gain, there would be no thieves and robbers."
The language of the Dao De Jing, however, is clearly from the Han era; we cannot know how much of this text actually represents the teachings of Lao Zi, much less can we know whether Lao Zi ever actually existed.
According to legend, Confucius once met the "old dragon" Lao Zi, who was the older scholar. Lao Zi was unimpressed with Confucius, and believed him vain and arrogant for attempting to define the Dao (Tao) through his "Rules of Propriety." Lao Zi rejected the Confucian notion that the Rules of Propriety might capture the path to virtue. This was due to his belief that the Dao was not to be equated with filial piety or with any other system of morality or learning as the Dao itself was limitless and inexpressible. It cannot be named or otherwise described, as any attempt to do so would necessarily limt the Dao. The Dao encompasses everything.
Therefore, the Daoist ideal of the sage was quite different from that of Confucius, who advocated learning and study in order to cultivate virtue. Lao Zi argued that, "When we renounce learning we have no troubles. If we could renounce our sageness and discard our wisdom, it would be better for the people a hundredfold. If we could renounce our benevolence and discard our righteousness, the people would again become filial and kindly. If we could renounce our artful contrivances and discard our scheming for gain, there would be no thieves and robbers."
QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
Before answering the questions below, be sure to understand the readings by defining unknown words, researching allusions, and using prior knowledge to make connections with the broader strokes of history. This set of excerpts can be used for further study of the Death of God lecture at http://demott.weebly.com/death-of-god-lecture.html.
1. Explain the underlined passages. If necessary, supply an additional example in your explanation.
2. To what extent do these religious and philosophical concepts remain in the cultures of today?
3. What are the similarities and differences among the religious and philosophical beliefs mentioned above?
2. To what extent do these religious and philosophical concepts remain in the cultures of today?
3. What are the similarities and differences among the religious and philosophical beliefs mentioned above?