Unit 6: Europe and the Americas in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries
26. The Industrial Revolutions of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries
Spinning jenny, Fly shuttle, Richard Arkwright, Steam engine, Cotton gin, Dual Revolution, Liberalism, Nationalism, Socialism, Romanticism, Revolution of 1848, Garibaldi, Mazzini, Schleswig and Holstein, Second Industrial Revolution
27. The Unification of Italy and Germany
Dual Revolution, Congress of Vienna, Sardinia, Sicily, Papal States, Naples, Lombardy, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Mazzini, Garibaldi, Cavour, Victor Emmanuel, Zollverein, Bismarck, Schleswig-Holstein, William I, German Confederation, Franco-Prussian War, Austro-Prussian War, German Empire, Nationalism
28. The United States in the Nineteenth Century
Manifest Destiny, Louisiana Purchase, Frontie Thesis, Trail of Tears, Battle of Little Bighorn, Wounded Knee, Emancipation Proclamation
29. Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century
Imperialism, Mission civilisatrice, "Imperialism the Highest Stage of Capitalism", Social Darwinism, Panama Canal, Suez Canal, Tropical dependencies, Settlement colonies, Scramble for Africa, French Equatorial Africa, Belgian Congo, Khedives, Mahdi, Battle of Omdurman, Dutch East India Company, Afrikaners, Boer War, Great Trek, Republic of Natal, Orange Free State, South African Republic, German Southwest Africa, German East Africa, German East Africa Company, Italian East African Empire, Italian Benadir Company, Liberia, Abyssinia, Captain James Cook, Aboriginals, Maori, Hawaii, Queen Lili' uokalani, Monroe Doctrine, Manifest Destiny, Big Stick Policy, Spanish-American War, Sakhalin Island, Manchuria, Russo-Japanese War, Johnson-Reed Act
Unit 6 Focus Readings
Ideologies of the Nineteenth Century
Liberalism was based on the ideals of liberty and equality. Liberalism advocated representative governnment, equality before the law, freedom of speech, assembly, the press, and freedom from arbitrary arrest. Liberalism also promoted free enterprise and lack of governmental control of the economy, also known as laissez-faire or classical liberalism. After 1815, advocates of liberalism were largely from the middle class. Their interests collided with those of the lower classes, and often they wished to limit the right to vote, for example, to those with property.
Nationalism was based on the belief in cultural unity based on a common language, history, territory, and ethnicity. The nationalists sought to create nations based on cultural unity.
Socialism first emerged in France. One of the most influential early advocates of socialism was Count Herni de Saint-Simon. Saint-Simon welcomed industrialization, but advocated government control of the economy with the "doers" or industrialists in charge. Socialists like Saint-Simon advocated help for the poor, government control to ensure economic equality between the rich and poor, and regulation or abolition of private property. Marxist socialism which arose following the publication of The Communist Manifesto in 1848, rejected the emphasis of Saint-Simon on the emerging middle class and instead advocated the interests of the working class, or proletariat. The proletariat would rise against the industrialists who controlled the "means of production," and establish a "dictatorship of the proletariat." Eventually, the need for a state would wither away, leading to true communism. Marx's view of history is known as historical materialism, and it relied upon the notion that class conflicts over economic issues moved history.
Nationalism was based on the belief in cultural unity based on a common language, history, territory, and ethnicity. The nationalists sought to create nations based on cultural unity.
Socialism first emerged in France. One of the most influential early advocates of socialism was Count Herni de Saint-Simon. Saint-Simon welcomed industrialization, but advocated government control of the economy with the "doers" or industrialists in charge. Socialists like Saint-Simon advocated help for the poor, government control to ensure economic equality between the rich and poor, and regulation or abolition of private property. Marxist socialism which arose following the publication of The Communist Manifesto in 1848, rejected the emphasis of Saint-Simon on the emerging middle class and instead advocated the interests of the working class, or proletariat. The proletariat would rise against the industrialists who controlled the "means of production," and establish a "dictatorship of the proletariat." Eventually, the need for a state would wither away, leading to true communism. Marx's view of history is known as historical materialism, and it relied upon the notion that class conflicts over economic issues moved history.
Revolt in Prussia
In March 1848, revolution reached Prussia. Working and middle class protestors joined together in Berlin to rally against the monarchy. Grederick William IV of Prussia responded with a promise of a liberal constitution and was willing to allow Prussia to be a part of a new united Germany.
A threat to German unification arose in the matter of Schleswig and Holstein. Schleswig and Holstein were two Germanic provinces. Holstein was also a member of the German Confederation and Germans were the primary inhabitants of both. The King of Denmark, however, controlled both. When Grederick VII of Denmark attempted to solidify his control over these two provinces, he sparked a revolt among their German residents.
The German National Assembly called on Prussia, as the largest of the German states, to deal with Denmark. Frederick William IV sent his Prusian army forth to settle the matter. Meanwhile, the National Assembly finished the constitution and elected Frederick William IV of Prussia as the new emperor of Germany. Frederick William IV refused, not wishing to be bound to the liberal constitution.
In Prussia, he terminated the Prussian constitutional assembly and instead issued a conservative dconstitution. he then attempted to have himself elected emperor of Germany on his own terms. Austria blocked him and, since Austria was backed by Russia, it was strong enough to force Frederick William to back down. The liberals had failed, and those wishing for German unification had failed also.
A threat to German unification arose in the matter of Schleswig and Holstein. Schleswig and Holstein were two Germanic provinces. Holstein was also a member of the German Confederation and Germans were the primary inhabitants of both. The King of Denmark, however, controlled both. When Grederick VII of Denmark attempted to solidify his control over these two provinces, he sparked a revolt among their German residents.
The German National Assembly called on Prussia, as the largest of the German states, to deal with Denmark. Frederick William IV sent his Prusian army forth to settle the matter. Meanwhile, the National Assembly finished the constitution and elected Frederick William IV of Prussia as the new emperor of Germany. Frederick William IV refused, not wishing to be bound to the liberal constitution.
In Prussia, he terminated the Prussian constitutional assembly and instead issued a conservative dconstitution. he then attempted to have himself elected emperor of Germany on his own terms. Austria blocked him and, since Austria was backed by Russia, it was strong enough to force Frederick William to back down. The liberals had failed, and those wishing for German unification had failed also.
The Italian States
Italians wanted liberal government and the expulsion of Austria from the Piedmont region. In the 1830s Joseph Mazzini organized a secret society called Young Italy. in 1847 the hated Austrians took the town of Ferrara in the Papal States, but were forced out. When the Milanese threatened in January 1848 to quit using goods that contributed to the Austrian financial machine, such as tobacco, Austrian soldiers shot and killed 61 Italians. The Austrians laid seige to Milan, but were repulsed by armed citizens. Mazzini, who had been in hiding in South America, returned in June 1848. most inhabitants of Milan still supported the Austrians, and many potential allies, such as the Kingdom of Naples, abandoned the revolutionary cause. Only Lombardy and the Piedmont provided aid.
Field Marshal Radetzky, who defeated the Italians at Custozza in the end of July, commanded the Austrians. The Italians retreated to Milan and, when the Austrians gave permission for those who wished to leave to do so, Milan promptly lost half its population and fell on August 7. The Kingdom of Piedmont alone continued to fight, and the rebellion ended at Novarra on March 23, 1849.
On November 15, 1848, the prime minister of the Papal States was assasinated in Rome, and the pope fled to Geata in the south. Mazzinin then took charge, and improved the plight of the poor. He distributed some of the Church's land to the poor, reformed prisons and insane asylums, granted freedom of the press, and provided secular education.
The French invaded on April 20, 1849, and eventually the pope returned. Giuseppe Garibaldi, who had helped delay the French arrival, escaped to the United States. in the 1850s he would return to fight for Italian unification. Mazzini fled to England.
Venice continued to fight on, and the Austrians blockaded the city during the winter of 1848-49. Venice surrendered at the end of August.
The Revoution in Italy of 1848 had failed to achieve a united Italy.
Field Marshal Radetzky, who defeated the Italians at Custozza in the end of July, commanded the Austrians. The Italians retreated to Milan and, when the Austrians gave permission for those who wished to leave to do so, Milan promptly lost half its population and fell on August 7. The Kingdom of Piedmont alone continued to fight, and the rebellion ended at Novarra on March 23, 1849.
On November 15, 1848, the prime minister of the Papal States was assasinated in Rome, and the pope fled to Geata in the south. Mazzinin then took charge, and improved the plight of the poor. He distributed some of the Church's land to the poor, reformed prisons and insane asylums, granted freedom of the press, and provided secular education.
The French invaded on April 20, 1849, and eventually the pope returned. Giuseppe Garibaldi, who had helped delay the French arrival, escaped to the United States. in the 1850s he would return to fight for Italian unification. Mazzini fled to England.
Venice continued to fight on, and the Austrians blockaded the city during the winter of 1848-49. Venice surrendered at the end of August.
The Revoution in Italy of 1848 had failed to achieve a united Italy.
Cavour
Count Camillo Benso di Cavour was the leading figure in Sardinian politics from 1850-1861. Cavour was the chief minister of Victor Emmanuel. Cavour's original aim was to unite northern and some of central Italy into a state dominated by Sardinia. Cavour worked on strengthening the infrastructure of Sardinia, supporting civil liberties, and opposing the privileged status of the Church. He also built highways and railroads, which brought benefits to northern Italy and increased support for Sardinian rule. Increased revenues also made it possible for Cavour to assemble and train army.
To unify northern Italy, Cavour realized that he had to free Lombardy and Venetia from Austria. To this end he negotiated secretly with Napoleon III of France for military support against Austria. In July 1858, Austria reacted to Cavour's provacative actions by attacking Sardinia. To its surprise, Austria was defeated by the combined forces of Sardinia and France.
Sardinia expected to be able to claim Lombardy and Venetia at last. Instead Napolean III suddenly changed his position. He had no stomache for war. Since Pope Pius IX had declared the Sardinian policies relating to Church and state to be contradictory to Church teachings, Napoleon III could not risk alienating French Catholics by aiding Sardinia. As a result, Sardinia did not obtain the territorial gains it sought. Instead it received only Lombardy. Deeply angered by this turn of events, Cavour resigned.
In other parts of Italy, particularly in central Italy, nationalists rose in successful revolt and called for a united Italy, demanding that their particular regions be joined to Sardinia. Cavour returned in 1860 to control most of Italy in the name of Sardinia.
To unify northern Italy, Cavour realized that he had to free Lombardy and Venetia from Austria. To this end he negotiated secretly with Napoleon III of France for military support against Austria. In July 1858, Austria reacted to Cavour's provacative actions by attacking Sardinia. To its surprise, Austria was defeated by the combined forces of Sardinia and France.
Sardinia expected to be able to claim Lombardy and Venetia at last. Instead Napolean III suddenly changed his position. He had no stomache for war. Since Pope Pius IX had declared the Sardinian policies relating to Church and state to be contradictory to Church teachings, Napoleon III could not risk alienating French Catholics by aiding Sardinia. As a result, Sardinia did not obtain the territorial gains it sought. Instead it received only Lombardy. Deeply angered by this turn of events, Cavour resigned.
In other parts of Italy, particularly in central Italy, nationalists rose in successful revolt and called for a united Italy, demanding that their particular regions be joined to Sardinia. Cavour returned in 1860 to control most of Italy in the name of Sardinia.
Otto von Bismarck
William I reacted decisively. He created a new ministry and appointed Otto von Bismarck as its head. Bismarck, an aristocrat, was devoted to Prussia and its king, and to Prussian supremacy in Germany. His career began in the Prussian Assembly in 1848, where other members considered thim to be a conservative. He served as the Prussian ambassador to the German Confederation fro 1851-1858, working for Prussia and against Austria. he then served as Prussian Ambassador to Russia and France, gainging valuable experience in dealing with the other powers of Europe.
In 1862 Bismarck took control. He ignored the Prussian Assembly, which declared it alone had the right to authorize taxes. Bismrack ordered taxes collected even thought he Assembly refused to approve the budget. Bismarck then set about reorganizing the army according to the wishes of William I. Meanwhile, the people of Prussia continued to elect liberal representatives who were absolutely opposed to Bismarck's policies and methods. Bismarck refused to give in to the lack of popular approval and continued to do his duty as he saw it. He remarked that only "blood and iron" could decide the great questions of his day.
In 1862 Bismarck took control. He ignored the Prussian Assembly, which declared it alone had the right to authorize taxes. Bismrack ordered taxes collected even thought he Assembly refused to approve the budget. Bismarck then set about reorganizing the army according to the wishes of William I. Meanwhile, the people of Prussia continued to elect liberal representatives who were absolutely opposed to Bismarck's policies and methods. Bismarck refused to give in to the lack of popular approval and continued to do his duty as he saw it. He remarked that only "blood and iron" could decide the great questions of his day.
The "Frontier Thesis"
Frederick Jackson Turner put forth his famous "frontier thesis" three years after the U.S. Census Bureau announced the closing of the American frontiers. turner argued that the American character was formed by it continuing engagement of changing frontiers, and that these frontiers were "the meeing point between savagery and civilization." Americans had to continually reenact the advances of industrialization in the late nineteeth century along succesive frontiers, which he described as "free land." Turner saw westward expansion as synonymous with progress. The continuing need to civilize the frontier formed the distinctively ruges, individualistic, and practical American character. The frontier also functioned as a safety valve of sorts, in that it provided a way to diffuse discontent in the urban areas.
Though many historians dispute Turner's main ideas, the "frontier thesis" has become one of the most significant theses about the American character and the formation of American democratic institutions as a distinctive form of government. Many historians challenge Turner's idea that all frontiers encountered by Americans had something in common, as the frontiers experienced in the colonial period were vastly different from those in the late nineteenth century.
Further, Turner saw the West as a free frontier that offered unlimited freedom and opportunity. The conflicts that arose between Native Americans and those who traveled west suggest that the frontiers were not as free as Turner thougth they were, and more modern historians tend to prefer to talk about the violence and depravity that occurred as Anglo-Saxon settlers displaced Native Americans. Further, many ethnic peoples, such as Asians, experienced repression in the West, which belies Turner's description of the frontier as offering limitless opportunity for all. Other historians point to the need for greater complexity in one's analysis of American history, and refer to the role of technology and other elements in the development of American ideals and characteristic institutions. Finally, Turner saw the closing of the frontier as the end of the first chapter of American history. In so doing, he ignored the significance of the national debate over slavery.
Though many historians dispute Turner's main ideas, the "frontier thesis" has become one of the most significant theses about the American character and the formation of American democratic institutions as a distinctive form of government. Many historians challenge Turner's idea that all frontiers encountered by Americans had something in common, as the frontiers experienced in the colonial period were vastly different from those in the late nineteenth century.
Further, Turner saw the West as a free frontier that offered unlimited freedom and opportunity. The conflicts that arose between Native Americans and those who traveled west suggest that the frontiers were not as free as Turner thougth they were, and more modern historians tend to prefer to talk about the violence and depravity that occurred as Anglo-Saxon settlers displaced Native Americans. Further, many ethnic peoples, such as Asians, experienced repression in the West, which belies Turner's description of the frontier as offering limitless opportunity for all. Other historians point to the need for greater complexity in one's analysis of American history, and refer to the role of technology and other elements in the development of American ideals and characteristic institutions. Finally, Turner saw the closing of the frontier as the end of the first chapter of American history. In so doing, he ignored the significance of the national debate over slavery.
Joseph de Gobineau and Herbert Spencer
Contributing to the European belief in their civilizing mission were new, allegedly "scientific," views, such as those developed by Count Joseph Arthur de Gobineau, a French noble who divided humanity into four basic races. Each race had unique characteristics. In his four volume Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races, Gobineau argued that Europeans were superior to the other races. Modern sociologists argue that race is a social construct, and biologists argue that there is no such thing as a "pure" race. Gobineau's views, however, combined with Charles Darwin's thesis concerning the survival of the fittest became "Social Darwinism." Herbert Spencer argued that stronger and more able individuals competed better and so became more successful. Therefore, European domination of less well-developed cultures was a natural and just situation.
Many modern scholars now reject social Darwinism or the idea of a civilizing mission for Europe. While modern academics are making a strong effort to recover the indigenous history and cultural contributions of those areas of the world colonized by European and American powers, it is difficult to counter the legacy of ill-will created by European beliefs in their cultural supremacy, especially in those areas whose cultures were so denigrated. Further, imperialism created a wider gulf between industrialized nations and those that were not, which still remains today.
Many modern scholars now reject social Darwinism or the idea of a civilizing mission for Europe. While modern academics are making a strong effort to recover the indigenous history and cultural contributions of those areas of the world colonized by European and American powers, it is difficult to counter the legacy of ill-will created by European beliefs in their cultural supremacy, especially in those areas whose cultures were so denigrated. Further, imperialism created a wider gulf between industrialized nations and those that were not, which still remains today.
The British in China
British trade in opium eventually negated Chinese supremacy in trade and eventually resulted in the downfall of the Qing dynasty. Although the Chinese prohibited its use in 1800, byt he 1830s more than 30,000 chests of opium, each of which held about 150 pounds of extract, were entering China each year. In 1839 the Chinese were desperate enough to burn several tons of opium in Canton. The British surrounded Canton, and in 1842, they defeated the Chinese in the First Opium War. According to the Treaty of Nanjing, the Chinese lost Hong Kong to the British, who held it until the late twentieth century, when it reverted back to China. The treaty forced the Chinese to open other ports to the British, and by 1844, the French and Americans had a trading presence in China as well. The French allied with the British to fight a Second Opium War, which led once again to the defeat of China in 1856. The Treaty of Tienstsin (Tianjin, 1858) opened new ports to trading and allowed foreigners with passport to travel in the interior of China. The Chinese granted Christians the right to spreaad their faith and to own property,and in separate treaties, the United States and Russia received similar privileges.
The Maori of New Zealand
When Europeans colonized the New World during the Age of Exploration, they brought smallpox and other diseases that devastated the native populations. This was also true in New Zealand, where the native Maori population dropped frrom 200,000 to 45,000 within a century following the arrival of timber traders in New Zealand in 1790. European firearms also created more tension among the warlike Maori. The arrival of British farmers and herders in the mid-ninteenth century eventually culminated in a series of wars from 1860-1864, after which the British forced the Maori to reservations. Western education, however, gave some Maori the abiliity to fight for their rights, and the Maori continued to survive despite their near extermination.
Questions to Consider
Before answering the questions below, be sure to understand the readings by defining unknown words, researching allusions, and using prior knowledge to make connections with the broader strokes of history. This set of excerpts can be used for further study of the Poland lecture at: http://demott.weebly.com/poland-lecture.html
1. Explain the underlined passages. If necessary, supply an additional example in your explanation.
2. What was consistent with all of the excerpts concerning foreign power and self determination?
3. To what extent is international politics a decisive factor in determining a people's / nation's history?
1. Explain the underlined passages. If necessary, supply an additional example in your explanation.
2. What was consistent with all of the excerpts concerning foreign power and self determination?
3. To what extent is international politics a decisive factor in determining a people's / nation's history?